Liberalism is a political theory and philosophy in international relations that primarily emphasizes the rights of individuals, including their liberty, rights, and property. It argues for upholding the rights of the people, thus placing political authority in the hands of governments, but with the active participation of citizens. The contemporary world broadly follows and accepts the political thoughts propounded by the theory of liberalism, though its roots date back to medieval and even ancient times.
Unlike realism, liberalism primarily focuses on the behavior of individuals and the rights accruing to them, substantially emphasizing the well-being of individuals as the basic unit of the political system, yet within the governance of governments. History depicts that the world remained under political systems based on unfettered power derived from realism, giving rise to monarchic and dictatorial states with no checks and balances regarding subjects’ well-being or civil liberties. Thus, liberalism begins with the idea of freeing people from unnecessary state restrictions.
Proponents of liberalism claim that only very limited restrictions should be imposed by the state, with individual liberty considered supreme relative to their rights. Governments are to protect and preserve citizen rights, discarding the old notion of “might is right.” This concept brought radical change by encouraging citizen participation in state affairs while ensuring liberty.
One of the modern thinkers, Francis Fukuyama, describes liberalism as the “end of history and the last man,” emphasizing harmony among states and citizens through institutions ensuring civil liberties, thereby calling an end to previous political systems tested worldwide.
Classical Liberalism
Classical liberalism, a political and economic ideology, emerged from radical changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in Western society during the 18th and 19th centuries. It primarily focuses on civil liberties, economic freedom, and equality before the law.
John Locke (1632–1704), the founding father of classical liberalism, advocated the idea of the state of nature—where natural law imposes no limitations on humans but problems may arise without authority to resolve disputes and protect rights. Locke emphasized the importance of a stable state to enforce natural law and act as a neutral arbitrator, safeguarding civil liberties and equality before the law.
Classical liberalism also draws from the social contract theory of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Modern political thought further supports minimizing government roles while ensuring civil liberties and introducing free market and free trade concepts within reasonable state parameters. This opposes realism’s focus on collectivism, emphasizing freedom of religion, speech, and individualism.
Immanuel Kant articulated ideas of individual independence and universal rationality, upholding human dignity and advocating for the state to ensure civil liberties and individual freedoms. Other notable classical liberalists include Adam Smith (1723–1790), Jean-Baptiste Say (1767–1832), and David Ricardo (1772–1823), who reinforced civil liberties and limited government restrictions.
Neo-Liberalism
Neo-liberalism emphasizes laissez-faire economics, focusing on minimal government control, believing market forces self-regulate economic activity. It advocates privatization, deregulation, and competition while opposing government interference as an impediment to economic autonomy. Emerging in the 19th and 20th centuries, neo-liberalism combines political and economic liberalism, promoting freedom of enterprise and limiting government powers.
Critics argue that neo-liberalism threatens democracy, workers’ rights, and state self-determination by promoting economic inequality, empowering multinational corporations, and reducing government intervention. It is said to foster monopolies and unequal wealth distribution, enhancing corporate earnings at workers’ expense.
Comparative Analysis of Realism and Liberalism
Both realism and liberalism are widely used to analyze international political relations. Realism focuses on the state as the main actor in an anarchic international system, prioritizing pragmatic self-interest and often skeptical about morality’s role in international politics. It views human nature as egoistic and self-interested, as illustrated by Thucydides and Thomas Hobbes.
Conversely, liberalism acknowledges international anarchy but maintains an optimistic view of human nature. It emphasizes institutions to mitigate anarchy through cooperation, international law, and trade, aiming to reduce conflicts and promote peace. Philosophers like Locke and Kant underpin this optimistic outlook, emphasizing civil liberties and cooperation.
While realists see morality as instrumental or absent in international relations, liberals argue for ethical considerations and the role of international institutions in promoting peace and cooperation.
References
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Rawls, John. Political Liberalism. In The New Social Theory Reader, pp. 123-128. Routledge, 2020.
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Von Mises, Ludwig, and Nadia May. Liberalism. Createspace Independent Pub, 2012.
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Geuss, Raymond. “Liberalism and its Discontents.” Political Theory 30, no. 3 (2002): 320-338.
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Voegelin, Eric, and Keith Algozin. “Liberalism and its History.” The Review of Politics 36, no. 4 (1974): 504-520.
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Larner, Wendy. “Neoliberalism?” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 21, no. 5 (2003): 509-512.
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Mudge, S. L. “What is Neo-liberalism?” Socio-Economic Review 6, no. 4 (2008): 703-731.
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Noé, J. B. “The Colonial Question before Colonization: Philosophical and Economic Reflections on the July Monarchy.” ФН, 54 (2020).
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Emmons, Terence. “Liberation or liberalism?” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 5, no. 1 (2004): 107-112.
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