Constructivism’s emergence in IR is often linked to the end of the Cold War, an event that traditional theories such as realism and liberalism failed to adequately explain. This failure stems from some core tenets of these theories — for example, the conviction that states are self-interested actors competing for power, and that the international system is defined by an unequal distribution of power shaping the balance between states. These traditional approaches focus predominantly on the state and overlook the agency of individuals. However, it was the actions of ordinary people, rather than just states or international organizations, that played a significant role in ending the Cold War.
Constructivism addresses this gap by arguing that the social world is constructed through human action and interaction (Onuf, 1989). Powerful actors such as leaders and influential citizens continually shape — and sometimes reshape — the very nature of international relations through their actions and interactions.
Core Ideas of Constructivism
Constructivism simply states the obvious: actions, interactions, and perceptions shape reality. It suggests that international relations are not solely determined by military power or economic interests but are also influenced by shared ideas, beliefs, and norms. Change in international relations occurs through evolving ideas and identities, not just material capabilities.
Social Constructivism
Social Constructivism is an extended form of constructivism that places greater emphasis on social interaction and communication in shaping the international system. It highlights the significance of language and discourse in constructing reality and shaping actors’ perceptions.
Nicholas Greenwood Onuf was the first theorist to introduce the term “constructivism” in IR theory in 1989. In his book World of Our Making, Onuf claims that states, like individuals, live in a socially constructed international system shaped by language and communication. He emphasizes the importance of rules in shaping state behavior and analyzes how ideas from republican traditions influence international relations, focusing on concepts like civil virtue and participatory governance. Onuf challenges the Westphalian myth of sovereignty by arguing that sovereignty is not a fixed, timeless principle but evolves over time and is subject to interpretation.
Alexander Wendt is another main theorist of constructivism. He argues that international relations are not determined entirely by material factors but are heavily influenced by shared ideas, norms, and social interactions between states. Wendt famously asserts that “anarchy is what states make of it,” emphasizing the role of social construction in shaping behavior. He explores the role of language and communication in building social structures in international relations and contends that the international system’s anarchic nature is socially constructed, not inherent. States’ behavior is shaped by shared beliefs, identities, and social interaction.
Wendt disagrees with the neorealist and neoliberal notion that human associations are constructed solely by material phenomena but acknowledges that material factors exist and cannot be ignored. However, he does not see them as the central drivers of international relations.
Wendt illustrates the social construction of reality with a notable example: 500 British nuclear weapons are perceived as less threatening to the United States than five North Korean nuclear weapons. This perception arises not from the material structure of the weapons themselves but from the meaning (ideational structure) assigned to them, which is shaped by the social relationships and shared understandings between these states. This example highlights that nuclear weapons alone have no inherent meaning outside their social context, underscoring how constructivism includes the effects of ideas and beliefs in world politics. It also suggests that reality is constantly under construction, opening possibilities for change as meanings evolve over time.
Peter J. Katzenstein emphasizes how culture, norms, and identity significantly shape how states perceive and respond to security challenges. There is no universal approach to security; different cultures have varying norms, which influence states’ responses to security issues.
Islamic Claims on Constructivism
From an Islamic perspective, several points of convergence with constructivism can be highlighted:
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Cultural Sensitivities: Constructivism’s emphasis on culture aligns with Islamic principles, which also emphasize cultural values, ethics, and shared traditions as guides to human behavior. Historically, Islamic civilization flourished partly because it celebrated different cultures. The Quran underscores this in the verse:
“O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted.” (Al-Hujurat 49:13)
This verse highlights the constructive nature of human interaction, reflecting constructivism’s notion that international norms and identities are socially constructed through interaction.
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Non-Material Influence: Islam recognizes the importance of material factors but also stresses non-material aspects such as spirituality, morality, ethics, and justice. The Quran states:
“O you who have believed, spend from the good things which you have earned and from that which We have produced for you from the earth. And do not aim toward the defective therefrom, spending [from that] while you would not take it [yourself] except with closed eyes. And know that Allah is Free of need and Praiseworthy.” (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:267)
This verse emphasizes the responsible use of material power for the greater good. Like Wendt, Islam acknowledges material realities but stresses that non-material values are equally critical.
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Normative Power and Shared Knowledge: Islamic teachings on ethical norms and shared knowledge align with constructivism. For example:
“And those who have responded to their Lord and established prayer and whose affair is [determined by] consultation among themselves, and from what We have provided them, they spend.” (Surah Ashura 42:38)
This verse underscores consultation, dialogue, shared understanding, and norm construction through social interaction — all core themes in constructivist theory.
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Human Agency and Constructed Realities: Islam acknowledges human agency and free will:
“And let there be [arising] from you a nation inviting to [all that is] good, enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong, and those will be the successful.” (Surah Al-Imran 3:104)
This corresponds to constructivism’s idea that norms and values crucially shape state behavior and that actors promote norms within the international system. Another verse highlights responsibility for perception:
“O you who have believed, if there comes to you a disobedient one with information, investigate, lest you harm a people out of ignorance and become, over what you have done, regretful.” (Surah Al-Hujurat 49:6)
This emphasizes the importance of verifying information, aligning with constructivism’s view that realities are socially constructed through interpretation and understanding.
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Islamic Criticism of Constructivism
Constructivism tends to adopt a secular approach, focusing on non-material factors like ideas and norms while often neglecting the religious perspective. Religion plays a crucial role in shaping international relations, so constructivism may carry a Western-centric bias that overlooks non-Western views, including Islamic perspectives.
Moreover, constructivism places heavy emphasis on ideational factors but tends to downplay material factors, which are significant in Islamic political thought. While Islam shares constructivism’s focus on cultural values, shared knowledge, morality, ethics, and norms, it also emphasizes material realities for the greater good.
Constructivism highlights the role of international institutions and norms, often within a Western-centric framework. Islamic critics argue that these institutions primarily reflect Western values and may not align with Islamic principles of justice, governance, and international relations.
Summary and Key Contributors
Constructivism highlights important aspects of international behavior, but an inclusive and culturally sensitive approach is necessary. Understanding Islamic perspectives, religious principles, and Islamic historical experience can help bridge gaps between Western theories and Islamic viewpoints, providing a richer understanding of global politics.
Key Contributor Notable Work Key Concepts Implementation in Pakistan Alexander Wendt Social Theory of International Politics, Quantum Mind and Social Science Social constructivism, self-help and anarchy, identity and behavior Pakistan’s evolving relationship with India can be analyzed through constructivism by highlighting how negative perceptions, historical grievances, and cultural biases shape mistrust and tensions, affecting diplomacy and regional stability. Nicholas Onuf World of Our Making: Rules and Rule in Social Theory and International Relations, Sovereignty, Authority, and Power: An Anarchist View of International Relations Constructivism, rule-following, world of our making Peter J. Katzenstein Cultural Norms and National Security: Police and Military in Postwar Japan Regionalism, civilizations, cultural norms
