Marxism in International Relations

Marxism is sometimes perceived as an obfuscated amalgam of social, political, and economic doctrines within International Relations, advocating fervently for a classless society and equitable redistribution of resources as a counter-revolutionary stance against capitalist structures. This theoretical framework is often shrouded in ambiguity, with its terminology sometimes conflated with socialism and nationalism, each representing distinct ideological paradigms.

This chapter aims to untangle the foundational tenets of Marxism, tracing its historical trajectory from the idealistic vision of Karl Marx to the pragmatic yet contentious implementations under Joseph Stalin and Lenin. Furthermore, I will examine the convergence and divergence between Islamic thought and Marxist theory, delineating points of discord and potential synthesis between these ideological viewpoints.

Marx’s Critique of Capitalism

Marx contended that capitalism is inherently flawed in two key ways that lead to the exploitation of workers:

1. Chaotic Nature of Free Market Competition
   Marx criticized how free market competition creates instability and unfairness.

2. Extraction of Surplus Labor
   This is the practice where workers are paid less than the value of what they produce, with the excess value appropriated by capitalists.

Marx foresaw that as more people became part of the working class and inequality grew, competition would eventually erode corporate profits. This, in his view, would trigger a revolutionary upheaval, resulting in the working-class seizing control of production.

In Das Kapital, Marx provides a sharp critique of capitalism that continues to resonate today. He categorizes society into two main classes:

• Capitalists (Bourgeoisie): Those who own and control the means of production—factories, machinery, raw materials—and thus claim all profits.

• Proletariat (Working Class): Those who lack ownership and have no claim over the products or profits. They receive wages, which represent only a small fraction of the value they generate.

Marx argued that this structure results in exploitation because capitalists extract more value from workers than they pay in wages—this surplus value is the foundation of capitalist profit and exemplifies core exploitation inherent in the capitalist system.

Author’s Perspective on Marx’s Reinterpretation of Hegel and Feuerbach

Marxism aims to create a classless society by abolishing hierarchical class structures that perpetuate inequality. However, dismantling these structures can create a power vacuum at the upper levels of society, potentially leading to a dictatorship by a single party or group controlling resources and governance. Thus, the intention to eliminate class distinctions can sometimes paradoxically lead to power concentration.

• Dialectic and Hegel:
  The dialectic, traced back to Heraclitus, suggests everything is always changing. Hegel expanded this to view history and ideas as a dynamic process of conflict and resolution. Hegel’s idealism proposed reality is shaped by spiritual and logical ideas.

• Marx’s Adaptation:
  Marx rejected Hegel’s idealism and centered on materialism, focusing on the physical world and social relationships rather than abstract ideas. Marx’s dialectical materialism examines history based on material conditions.

• Feuerbach’s Materialism:
  Emphasized human existence grounded in material conditions, not abstract ideals. Marx critiqued Feuerbach for ignoring how human activity transforms the world.

• Marx’s Critique and Synthesis:
  In his Theses on Feuerbach, Marx argued that practical human activity changes reality and that understanding the world requires revolutionary action, not just thought. He rejected the idea of an abstract human essence, arguing it is shaped by social relationships and history.

Foundations of Marxist Thought

How Leninism Builds Upon or Alters Marxism

From Marxism to Stalinism and Beyond

• Marxism is a social and economic theory and philosophical approach rather than a political system.

• Lenin applied Marxism to form a new state with a Vanguard Party guiding transition toward communism.

• Stalinism extended Leninism with centralized control, purges, and “Socialism in One Country” focusing on internal USSR strength.

• Other variations include Maoism (focus on peasants and guerrilla warfare) and Trotskyism (advocates for international revolution and democracy within USSR).

Confusion Between Socialism and Communism

• Communism: Radical overthrow of capitalism; abolishes private property; classless society; goods distributed by need; state controls economy during transition.

• Socialism: Allows private personal property; major industries collectively owned or controlled; democratic wealth redistribution; often gradual reform within existing system.

• Modern social democracy balances economic fairness with market economy, promoting reforms without dismantling capitalism.

Critiques of Marxism

• The simple bourgeoisie-proletariat divide is now more nuanced.

• A large middle class exists with mixed ownership of capital and cultural/social capital influences.

• For example, in Britain, ~70% home ownership complicates class definitions.

• The 2011 Great British Class Survey identified seven social classes, underscoring complexity beyond classical Marxism.

• Survey Findings on Class Stratification Today

  • A small elite class exists, comprising about 6% of the population, typically wealthy homeowners over 50 years old.

  • This elite group differs significantly from Marx’s classical Bourgeoisie.

  • Age influences class membership:

    • Older individuals often belong to traditional working or elite classes.

    • Younger people tend to fall into newer middle-class categories.

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  Capitalism Today: Is It Less Exploitative?

  • Henry Ford’s Strategy:
    Paying workers better wages increased their buying power, fostering a consumer base and reducing exploitation.

  • Keynesian Economics & Welfare State:
    Post-WWII, many European countries implemented social welfare policies — universal healthcare, education, pensions, progressive taxes — to mitigate inequality.

  • Minimum Wage Legislation:

    • Pakistan has had minimum wage laws since the 1970s.

    • In 2023, Sindh’s minimum wage was approx. PKR 35,000/month, Punjab’s around PKR 33,000/month.

    • The UK introduced a minimum wage in 1998; by 2024, the National Living Wage for workers 23+ is £11.42/hour.

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  Control of the Superstructure

  • Marx argued those controlling the economic base also control the superstructure (media, education, religion).

  • Today, many superstructural institutions exhibit independence:

    • Media: Many outlets, especially online platforms, critique governments and corporations.

    • Education: Access to free educational resources online limits centralized control.

  • The diversity and size of modern societies make it hard for a small elite to dominate the superstructure.

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  Critiques of False Consciousness

  • Postmodernists challenge Marx’s concept of a single “false consciousness” created by bourgeois dominance.

  • They emphasize:

    • Cultural independence — media and culture serve multiple, sometimes conflicting purposes.

    • Multiplicity of truths — no single, universally correct consciousness exists; many valid perspectives coexist.

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  Work and Alienation

  • Jobs have evolved, with less alienation than in classical factory work.

  • In Pakistan:

    • Around 35% of workers are in skilled, technical, or professional roles.

    • Increasing self-employment and flexible work (e.g., freelancing, remote work) have improved autonomy and reduced alienation.

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  Capitalism and Prosperity: Contradicting Marx’s Predictions

  • Global capitalism has led to:

    • Increased overall wealth and reduced global poverty, despite extreme wealth concentration.

    • Rapid economic growth in emerging markets like India and China, expanding middle classes.

  • Pakistan’s socialist reforms under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto aimed at equality but often harmed the economy and investor confidence.

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  Failure of Communism

  • Communist revolutions, especially in Eastern Europe, did not fulfill Marx’s vision of equality and freedom.

  • The fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) led many former communist countries to adopt capitalism.

  • China has incorporated capitalist elements while retaining centralized control.

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  Marxism as a Metanarrative

  • Postmodern critiques of Marxism focus on:

    • Its reliance on a singular “correct” truth (false consciousness).

    • The need to prioritize local, specific social issues over grand universal theories.

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  Implementation of Communism and Socialism Worldwide

  • The Russian Revolution (1917) led by Lenin established the first communist state.

  • Communist and socialist states today (China, Cuba, North Korea, Laos, Vietnam) have not fully realized pure communist ideology:

    • Private property, money, and class distinctions remain.

  • Many countries termed socialist (Norway, Sweden, Denmark) practice social democracy — capitalist economies with extensive social welfare.

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  Socialism in Pakistan

  • Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (1970s) introduced Islamic Socialism, combining socialist principles with Islamic values.

  • His party’s slogan: “Roti, Kapra Aur Makan” (Bread, Clothes, and Shelter).

  • Bhutto argued that Islam’s principles like zakat (charity) and prohibition of interest align with socialist ideals.

  • Jamal al-Din Afghani (1890s) earlier proposed similar ideas, emphasizing social justice rooted in Islam.

  • Despite these efforts, many Pakistani religious scholars opposed Marxist socialism, favoring Sharia or caliphate systems.

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  Economic Impact of Nationalization in Pakistan

  • Pre-nationalization GDP growth was about 3.88%, dropping to 2.84% after nationalization.

  • Bhutto’s nationalization policies in the 1970s led to:

    • Economic disruption and loss of investor confidence.

    • Stifled industrial growth, slowed exports, and deteriorated education quality.

    • Rise of bureaucratic inefficiency replacing entrepreneurship.

  • Zia-ul-Haq regime partially reversed nationalization but did not resolve public sector inefficiencies.

  • By the 1990s, economic stagnation returned with:

    • Rising poverty (from 18% in late 1980s to 34% in late 1990s).

    • Weak governance and political instability.

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  Islamic Socialism and Its Intellectual Roots

  • Islamic Socialism advocates blending Islamic spiritual teachings with socialism’s social justice.

  • Quranic principles cited include:

    • “God commands justice and fair dealing.”

    • “Act justly. Truly, God loves those who are just.”

  • South Asian thinkers like Shah Wali Ullah and Allama Iqbal criticized capitalism and supported social justice based on Islamic teachings.

  • Muhammad Ali Jinnah envisioned Pakistan as an Islamic state with a social form of government.